tutorial_lud

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 tutorial_lud [2016/12/12 10:12]waruna Changed the latex notation to support new dokuwiki tutorial_lud [2017/04/19 14:09] Line 1: Line 1: - In this tutorial, we write an Alphabets program, starting from a mathematical equation for LU decomposition. ​ Then we will generate code to execute the alphabets program, and test the generated code for correctness. - The equation for LU Decomposition,​ derived from first principles using simple algebra in {{:​foundations.pdf|Foundations}} (pg.3), is as follows: - - /​*<​latex>​*/​ -  - U_{i,​j}=\begin{cases} - 1=i\le j & A_{i,j}\\ - 1​*/​ - - - [Temp note due to : in the last case of L, the condition is "1 < j <= i"] - - =====Writing Alphabets===== - ====Step 1 : Affine System and Parameters ==== - Let's start from an empty alphabets file, with LUD as the name of the system, and a positive integer N as its parameter. - A system (Affine System) takes its name from system of affine recurrence equations, and represents a block of computation. An Alphabets program may contain multiple systems. - - **Caveat:​** ​ Remember the phrase, "​It'​s not a bug, it's a feature"? ​ Well, in a tutorial, a feature is called a "​learning opportunity."​ - - Parameters are runtime constants represented with some symbol in the code. In this example, parameter N will be used to define the size of the matrices, which is not known until runtime. - ​ - affine LUD {N|N>0} - . - ​ - - ====Step 2 : Variable Declarations==== - In most cases, a computation uses some inputs and produces outputs. Such variables must be declared with a name, a data type, and a shape/​size. ​ In Alphabets, the shape/size is represented with polyhedral domains. - For this example, the ''​A''​ matrix is given, and we are computing two triangular matrices ''​L''​ and ''​U''​. ''​A''​ is an NxN square matrix. ​ The declaration for ''​A''​ looks as follows: - ​ - float A {i,​j|1<​=(i,​j)<​=N};​ //starting from 1 to be consistent with the equation in the notes - ​ - Similarly, ''​L''​ is a lower triangular matrix of size N (with unit diagonals, implicit) and ''​U''​ is an upper triangular matrix of size N. The declarations should look like the following: - ​ - //  The convention is that i is the vertical axis going down, and j is the horizontal axis - float L {i,​j|1<​i<​=N && 1<​=j<​i}; ​ // Note that the diagonal elements of L are not explicitly declared ​ - float U {i,​j|1<​=j<​=N && 1<​=i<​=j};​ - ​ - Now these variable declarations need to be placed at appropriate places to specify whether they are input/​output/​local. - ''​input''/''​given''​ is the keyword for input, ''​output''/''​returns''​ is the keyword for output, and ''​local''/''​using''​ is the keyword for local variables. - ​ - affine LUD {N|N>0} - input   float A {i,​j|1<​=(i,​j)<​=N}; ​ - output - float L {i,​j|1<​=j<​i<​=N};​ - float U {i,​j|1<​=i<​=j<​=N};​ - . - ​ - ===Domains=== - Polyhedral domains are represented as { "index names" | "​affine constraints using indices and parameters"​ }, where constraints can be intersected with ''"&&"''​. Sometimes constraints can be expressed with short-hand notation like ''"​a<​b<​c"''​ or ''"​(b,​c)<​0"''​. - - Unions of such domains can be expressed as "{ a,b | constraints on a and b } || { c,d | constraints on c and d }". One important point about Alphabets domains is that the names given to indices are only for textual representation. Internally, all analysis/​transformation/​code generation tools only care about which dimension the constraint applies to. - For example, a domain { i,j | 0<​=i<​j<​N } is equivalent to { x,y | 0<​=x<​y<​N }, because ''​i''​ and ''​x''​ are both names given to the first dimension, and ''​j''​ and ''​y''​ are names given to the second dimension. - - ====Step 3 : Equations==== - Now the only remaining step before a complete Alphabets program is writing the equations. ​ After a little experience, the connection from mathematical equations (of a certain form) to Alphabets equations should become increasingly clear. ​ There are two slightly different syntactic conventions for writing equations, one is called the "Show syntax"​ and the other is called "AShow syntax"​. ​ Show syntax is closer to the internal representation of Alphabets programs, and is more expressive when writing complex programs. AShow syntax uses "array notation"​ so that it is easier for people used to imperative programs. - - We will first write the equation for ''​U''​ in AShow syntax, and then move on to Show as we write the equation for ''​L''​. - ===Equation for U (AShow syntax)=== - In this equation, ''​U''​ is on the left hand side, and the right hand side should define ''​U''​ for each point in the declared domain of the ''​U''​ variable. - In AShow syntax, the names for indices used appear on the LHS of the equations. - - For this example, the following LHS for ''​U''​ gives ''​i,​ j''​ as the names for the first and second dimensions to be used when writing the expressions in the RHS. - These names do not have to match the names used in variable declaration. You could use ''​x,​y''​ instead of ''​i,​j''​ if desired. - ​U[i,​j] = RHSexpr;​ - - ==Case Expression== - The first thing you notice in the definition of ''​U''​ in the mathematical equation is the branch based on values of ''​i''​ and ''​j''​. This branching is expressed with CaseExpression in Alphabets. - A CaseExpression starts with the keyword "''​case''",​ ends with keyword "''​esac''",​ and has list of "'';''"​-delimited expressions,​ called "​clauses"​ as its children. - Often (but not always), each child of a case is a RestrictExpression (whose syntax is "​domain : expr"​),​ which restricts the domain to the specified domain. - - Using the above expressions,​ the branching of the definition of ''​U''​ is as follows : - ​ - U[i,j] = case - ​{|1==i} : expr1; - ​{|1<​i} : expr2; - esac; - ​ - Note that because index names are already declared in the context (equation LHS), there is nothing to the left of the ''​|''​ in the AShow syntax. - - ==Variable Expression== - Moving on to the definitions in each case, the first case is <​latex>​$A_{i,​j}$​. This is written as ''​A[i,​j]''​ in AShow syntax, similar to accessing an array. ​ A variable without a square bracket, is treated either as a scalar variable (as in, ''​X[i,​j] = 0''​) or as an access with the identity dependence function, (i.e., ''​X[i] = A[i]''​ would be the same as ''​X[i] = A''​). - - ==Reductions== - The last piece missing before completing the definition of ''​U''​ is the summation in the second branch. - Mathematically,​ a reduction is an operation that applies an associative-comutative operator (in general, the operator may only be associative,​ but In Alphabets, we have only associative-comutative operators) to a set of values, such as summation (sum over a set of numbers). - - Reductions are expressed with the following syntax : - ​ - reduce(operator,​ projection, expr); - ​ - operator: operator to be applied (+, *, max, min, and, or)\\ - expr: Any Alphabets expression. "​Slices"​ of the result of evaluating this expression are combined using the reduction operator.\\ - projection: The projection is an affine function with the same syntax as a dependence (as explained below). ​ By its very nature, a reduction **reduces** the number of dimensions of the expression, so the rxpr has more dimensions than the result. ​ Which values contribute to which result is specified by projection, a many-to-one affine function. - - In the mathematical equation, summation with one new index ''​k''​ is used. For each value of ''​k,''​ the expression ''​L[i,​k]*U[k,​j]''​ is computed and added up to produce the result ''​U[i,​j]''​. ​ Thus, the projection function is ''​(i,​j,​k -> i,​j)''​. (from the three dimensional space indexed by ''​i,​j,​k'',​ all values computed at ''​[i,​j,​k]''​ are used to compute ''​U[i,​j]''​ in the two dimensional space indexed by ''​i,​j''​ -- i.e., the ''​k''​ is '​projected out'​)\\ - - When the projection function is canonic (e.g., ''​(i,​j,​k->​i,​j))'',​ then the projection function can be replaced with a simpler syntax (AShow syntax for reductions) that specifies the names of new dimensions surrounded by square brackets. - For example, the projection ''​(i,​j,​x,​y->​i,​j)''​ can be expressed as ''​[x,​y]''​. - - Using the above, summation in the original equation can be written as the following Alphabets fragment. - ​ - reduce(+, [k], L[i,​k]*U[k,​j]);​ - ​ - - Putting all this together, the final equation for ''​U''​ is: - ​ - U[i,j] = case - ​{|1==i} : A[i,j]; - ​{|1<​i} : A[i,j] - reduce(+, [k], L[i,​k]*U[k,​j]);​ - esac; - ​ - - This is exactly like the original equation [[Caveat]] - - ===Equation for L (Show syntax)=== - Now we will write the equation for ''​L'',​ but this time in Show syntax. ​ Unlike the AShow syntax, Show syntax does not rely on the context for naming of indices. ​ Index names can be different in every (sub)expression if it makes sense to do so. - Because of this, the LHS does not have square brackets, all we need is the variable name. - ​ - L = RHSexpr; //Show syntax - ​ - ==Case Expression== - CaseExpression and RestrictExpression are same as AShow syntax. ​ However, since index names are no longer deduced from the context where they occur, they must be explicitly named everywhere. ​ While this may seem cumbersome, it allows expressions to have compositional semantics. ​ In our example, the index names used in the domain of RestrictExpression have to be made explicit. - The branch in the definition of ''​L''​ becomes the following Alphabets : - ​ - L = case - ​{i,​j|1==j} : expr1; - ​{i,​j|1<​i} : expr2; - esac; - ​ - ==Dependence Expression== - In the array notation in AShow syntax, a DependenceExpression was implicit: just add expressions within square brackets to access variables). ​ In the Show syntax ''​DependenceExpression''​ is used to explicitly specify which value of a variable is required for a computation. ​ The syntax of ''​DependenceExpression''​ is "​(affine_function)@expr",​ where ''​affine_function''​ is of the form ''​(list_of_indices -> list_of_affine_expressions)''​. ​ For example, the dependence ''​(i,​j->​i-1,​i+j)@A''​ means that at index point ''​(i,​j)''​ this computation evaluates to the value of ''​A''​ at index point ''​(i-1,​i+j)''​. - - The child of ''​DependenceExpression''​ can be any Alphabets expression, possibly another DependenceExpression. ​ For example, ''​(i,​j->​i,​j,​i+j,​0)@(a,​b,​c,​d->​a,​c-a)@A''​ is a perfectly legal Alphabets expression. - - ==Reductions== - Reductions in Show syntax are exactly like in the AShow syntax, except that the projection function is specified in the dependence syntax. ​ This is all you need in order to write the rest in of the equation in Show syntax. - ​ - L = case - ​{i,​j|1==j} : (A / (i,​j->​j,​j)@U);​ - ​{i,​j|1<​i} : (A - reduce(+, (i,​j,​k->​i,​j),​ (i,​j,​k->​i,​k)@L*(i,​j,​k->​k,​j)@U))/​(i,​j->​j,​j)@U;​ - esac; - ​ - ====Final Alphabets Program==== - Combine all of the above, and you will get the Alphabets program for LU decomposition. Don't forget the keyword ''​let''/''​through''​ before equations the period at the end (since our example has no local variables). ​ Notice how we can mix and match Show and AShow syntax within the program, but each equation must obviously, be consistent. - ​ - affine LUD {N|N>0} - input - float A {i,​j|1<​=(i,​j)<​=N}; ​ - output - float L {i,​j|1<​i<​=N && 1<​=j<​i};​ - float U {i,​j|1<​=j<​=N && 1<​=i<​=j};​ - let - ​U[i,​j] = case - {|1==i} : A[i,j]; - {|1​j,​j)@U;​ - {i,​j|1<​j} : (A - reduce(+, (i,​j,​k->​i,​j),​ (i,​j,​k->​i,​k)@L*(i,​j,​k->​k,​j)@U))/​(i,​j->​j,​j)@U;​ - esac; - . - ​ - =====Generating and Testing Alphabets===== - Analyses, transformations,​ and code generation of Alphabets programs are performed using the AlphaZ system. The normal interface for using AlphaZ is the scripting interface called compiler scripts. - Given below is an example script for that does several things using the LUD program we wrote above. - ​ - # read program and store the internal representation in variable prog - prog = ReadAlphabets("​./​LUD.ab"​);​ - - # store string (corresponding to system name) to variable system - system = "​LUD";​ - - # store output directory name to variable outDir - outDir = "​./​test-out/"​+system;​ - - # print out the program using Show syntax - Show(prog); - - # print out the program using AShow syntax - AShow(prog);​ - - # prints out the AST of the program (commented out) - #​PrintAST(prog);​ - - # generate codes (this is demand-driven,​ memoized code) - generateWriteC(prog,​ system, outDir); - generateWrapper(prog,​ system, outDir); - generateMakefile(prog,​ system, outDir); - ​ - Save this script with .cs extension, place the alphabets file in the same directory as the script, and then right click on the editor and select ''"​Run As -> Compiler Script"''​ to run the script. - - If you get some error message, try looking at the first line of the error messages to find out what it is about. - Common problems are: - * not having the file in the right place (you will see ''​FileNotFoundException''​ in this case) - * system name does not match the any of the system in the program (error message should say system ''​xxx''​ does not exist) - ====Code Generators==== - In this tutorial, we use two basic code generators, without going into too much detail. The two types of codes generated are ''​WriteC''​ and ''​Wrapper''​.\\ - ''​WriteC''​ code may not be efficient, but it can be generated without any additional specification beyond the program.\\ - ''​Wrapper''​ code is a wrapper around other generated codes that allocates/​frees memory for input and output variables, and it also have different options for testing.\\ - - Note:​Current implementation of the Wrapper prints out the bounding box of the domain of the output variable. - - generateMakefile produces a Makefile that should compile the generated codes. ​ You can make with different options. - ====Compiling and Executing the Generated Code==== - - Congratulations!! ​ You are nearly at the end.  Now, you will actually make and execute the code (in a separate terminal window). - - ==make== - compiles the code and produces an executable ''​xxx''​ (where ''​xxx''​ is the system name) that executes the program with default input that is 1 everywhere. ​ Compiling with this option does not test very much, but it will test if it compiles and runs and produces no errors. - ==make check== - Compiles the code and produces an executable ''​xxx.check''​ (''​xxx''​ is the system name) that prompts the user for all values of input variables. - After executing, it prints out all values of the output variables. - This option should be used for testing small to mid-sized input data. - ==make verify== - Compiles the code with another code named ''​xxx_verify.c''​ that defines a function ''​xxx_verify''​ (''​xxx''​ is the system name). - Users can provide different program as ''​xxx_verify''​ to compare outputs. - ==make verify-rand== - Same as verify, except the inputs are generated randomly. - - ====OOPS WHAT HAPPENED==== - You will see that when you execute the  code, **//it will produce an error//​**. ​ You may be able to easily fix the error in your Alpha program and regenerate correctly executing C code, or you may want a bit of help.  In either case, we would like to know. Please email <​Sanjay.Rajopadhye@colostate.edu>​ with the error message that is produced.